話語(yǔ)分析在雅思閱讀中的功能
來(lái)源：
小編： 81話語(yǔ)分析（discourse analysis）的概念最早由美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家Zellig Harris于1952年提出，自20世紀(jì)60年代以來(lái)日益受到國(guó)際語(yǔ)言學(xué)界的高度重視。話語(yǔ)分析是指將一個(gè)具有語(yǔ)用和語(yǔ)義連貫的語(yǔ)篇看作一個(gè)意義單位，考慮到語(yǔ)境、文化、社會(huì)認(rèn)知等方面的因素，對(duì)其內(nèi)在的語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)、邏輯聯(lián)系、銜接手段進(jìn)行破解和分析的語(yǔ)言研究方法。話語(yǔ)分析是英語(yǔ)閱讀教學(xué)中的重要手段，它能夠結(jié)合語(yǔ)境、篇章結(jié)構(gòu)、體裁特征等因素引導(dǎo)學(xué)生以較快的速度理解和掌握英語(yǔ)文章的主要內(nèi)容，獲取文章的最大信息量。而在語(yǔ)言測(cè)試領(lǐng)域，通過(guò)話語(yǔ)分析把握文章中出現(xiàn)的詞匯銜接手段、信息重心及文章層次結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)于閱讀答題起著非常關(guān)鍵的作用。在雅思閱讀考試中，話語(yǔ)分析的能力也是劍橋考試官方要考查的閱讀技能之一。而且根據(jù)國(guó)際語(yǔ)言學(xué)和測(cè)試學(xué)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)，可以預(yù)期話語(yǔ)分析將會(huì)成為雅思閱讀命題最重要的設(shè)計(jì)思想和模式。本文就雅思閱讀中話語(yǔ)分析的功能作以下兩個(gè)方面的簡(jiǎn)要論述。
一．語(yǔ)篇中句際、段際之間的銜接和連貫分析及相關(guān)答題思路。銜接（cohesion）和連貫(coherence)是篇章語(yǔ)言學(xué)（text linguistics）研究中的兩個(gè)基本概念，也是話語(yǔ)分析的重要課題。語(yǔ)篇無(wú)論是口頭表達(dá)還是書(shū)面表達(dá)，都必須銜接合理，符合邏輯，語(yǔ)義連貫。而語(yǔ)篇的連貫是依靠語(yǔ)篇銜接關(guān)系建立起來(lái)的。實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)篇連貫的銜接機(jī)制有顯性（explicit cohesive device）和隱性（implicit cohesive device）之分，其中顯性銜接是實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)篇連貫的主要手段，其具體方法包括：語(yǔ)法機(jī)制（grammatical device），詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion）和邏輯聯(lián)系語(yǔ)（logical connector）。學(xué)術(shù)類雅思閱讀文章的特點(diǎn)之一是結(jié)構(gòu)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，邏輯性強(qiáng)，論述層次清晰，其語(yǔ)篇的連貫多由顯性銜接機(jī)制來(lái)完成。具體的顯性銜接手段包括：指稱（reference），替代（substitution），省略（ellipsis），連接（conjunction），詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion），時(shí)間關(guān)聯(lián)（time relator），地點(diǎn)關(guān)聯(lián)（place relator），時(shí)和體（tense and aspect），平行結(jié)構(gòu)（parallel construction）等。雅思閱讀文章中語(yǔ)義銜接手段運(yùn)用較多的是連接，指稱，詞匯銜接和平行結(jié)構(gòu)。連接是指由連接成分（如邏輯關(guān)系詞）把兩個(gè)或多個(gè)句子，或者段落連接起來(lái)的現(xiàn)象。指稱是指一個(gè)項(xiàng)目的意義要靠另一個(gè)項(xiàng)目來(lái)解釋的現(xiàn)象。詞匯銜接是指由詞匯之間的語(yǔ)義關(guān)系（包括重現(xiàn)、同/近義、反義、上下義、整體部分義）以及同一語(yǔ)義場(chǎng)的詞匯搭配所建立起來(lái)的銜接關(guān)系。平行結(jié)構(gòu)是指相同類型的語(yǔ)句結(jié)構(gòu)形成的銜接關(guān)系。雅思閱讀考試直觀上是主要考查對(duì)具體細(xì)節(jié)信息的把握，其實(shí)在命題設(shè)計(jì)上常常體現(xiàn)出篇章語(yǔ)言、功能語(yǔ)法等當(dāng)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究的主要成果，語(yǔ)篇連貫的銜接機(jī)制就是雅思閱讀一個(gè)主要的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)考查范疇，體現(xiàn)在文章的語(yǔ)義銜接位置通常都會(huì)設(shè)有考點(diǎn)。以下就詞匯銜接，平行結(jié)構(gòu)，以及指稱與考點(diǎn)的聯(lián)系各舉一例進(jìn)行說(shuō)明。
例一．詞匯銜接（劍橋6/Test1/Reading Passage3）
Life for the descendants of theThulepeople is still harsh.Nunavutis 1.9 million square kilometers of rock and ice, and a handful of islands around the North Pole. It’s currently home to 2,500 people, all but a handful of them indigenous Inuit. Over the past 40 years, most have abandoned their nomadic ways and settled in the territory’s 28 isolated communities, but they still rely heavily on nature toprovide food and clothing.Provisions availableinlocal shops have to be flown intoNunavuton one of the most costly air networks in the world, orbrought by supply shipduring the few ice-free weeks of summer. It would cost a family around￡7,000a year to replacemeat they obtainedthemselves through hunting withimported meat. Economic opportunities are scarce, and for many peoplestate benefitsare their only income.
這是一道List of Headings題，要求在選項(xiàng)中找出能表達(dá)以上這段文字主題的段落標(biāo)題。List of Headings題解題的原則就是找出段落的主題句，然后與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)一一對(duì)應(yīng)，確定正確答案。但是在實(shí)際解題過(guò)程中，因?yàn)閲?yán)格的時(shí)間限制，一般都不會(huì)去確定主題句，而是直接以最有可能成為主題句的段落的首、次、中、尾四個(gè)句子分別與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)一一對(duì)應(yīng)來(lái)確定正確答案。但是在段落沒(méi)有主題句的情況下，利用這個(gè)方法就無(wú)法確定正確選項(xiàng)。必須根據(jù)段落中的其它線索來(lái)答題。以上這個(gè)段落雖然沒(méi)有主題句，但是在其行文中有非常明顯的詞匯銜接關(guān)系。文中的food and clothing，provisions，supply，meat，benefits是同一語(yǔ)義場(chǎng)（生活的供給）的詞匯同現(xiàn)，與選項(xiàng)iii的essential supplies對(duì)應(yīng)。而與該組詞緊密相連的provide，available，brought，obtained則是一組近義詞，其引導(dǎo)的信息與選項(xiàng) iii的alternative sources對(duì)應(yīng)。因此這段文字是通過(guò)同一語(yǔ)義場(chǎng)的詞匯同現(xiàn)和近義詞兩種詞匯銜接手段來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)句際之間的銜接，從而形成了意義上的連貫性，并構(gòu)成了與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)iii相對(duì)應(yīng)的段落主題。
例二．平行結(jié)構(gòu)（劍橋5/Test1/Reading Passage2）
Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them topredictthe average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatristsfelt that‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they furtheranticipated thatonly four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, theythought thatonly a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts. What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit!
Q22. Before the experiment took place the psychiatrists
A.believedthat a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.
B. failed toagree onhow the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.
C.underestimatedthe teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.
D.thoughtthat many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.
這是一道單選題，從命題的測(cè)試目的角度來(lái)看，是觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度分析類的題目。題干各個(gè)選項(xiàng)均含有表示觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度的提示詞（believed /agree on/ underestimated /thought）。與此題相對(duì)應(yīng)的原文段落在語(yǔ)義銜接上是通過(guò)近義詞和平行的及物性結(jié)構(gòu)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)，即：predict/ felt that/ anticipated that/ thought that。其形成的連貫語(yǔ)義（即普遍認(rèn)為試驗(yàn)的主體不會(huì)使用高電壓）為答案的引出作了重要的鋪陳。原文接著以提問(wèn)的方式給出了一個(gè)反面的結(jié)果，對(duì)應(yīng)選項(xiàng)C 的表示負(fù)向意義的觀點(diǎn)態(tài)度提示詞underestimated所引導(dǎo)的內(nèi)容。與此相類似的平行結(jié)構(gòu)的語(yǔ)義銜接在劍橋真題文章中多次出現(xiàn)，并且基本上都設(shè)有考點(diǎn)，反映了命題者對(duì)把握語(yǔ)義銜接和連貫的閱讀能力的重視。
例三．指稱（劍橋5/Test1/Reading Passage2）
One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as anadvantageoustrait, having been ofsurvival valueto our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves.
Q24. Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behavior. could be explained as apositivesurvival mechanism.
這是一道對(duì)錯(cuò)無(wú)判斷題，以題干中的positive和survival mechanism作為定位詞，分別對(duì)應(yīng)原文的“this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value”這一句中的advantageous和survival value，因此可以判定題干的核心意思和原文的對(duì)應(yīng)信息是同義轉(zhuǎn)述。但是我們還需要確定題干中的teacher-subjects’ behavior和原文的對(duì)比信息this aggressive instinct在語(yǔ)義上是否對(duì)等。而要確定這一點(diǎn)，就必須要理解在原文中“this aggressive instinct”正是借助指稱的銜接手段指代上文中的關(guān)于“teacher-subjects’ behavior”的具體描述，即：“teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock”。據(jù)此才可以判定題干的意思與原文完全一致，答案應(yīng)為T(mén)RUE。
二．語(yǔ)篇的邏輯推理及其解題功能?！靶纬烧Z(yǔ)篇的根本是邏輯，理解語(yǔ)篇的根本也是邏輯，一切語(yǔ)篇無(wú)不深藏著思維的邏輯”（何善芳，2002）。英語(yǔ)是綜合型為主，向分析型過(guò)渡的語(yǔ)言，其語(yǔ)篇的邏輯性既依賴于有著豐富銜接手段的顯性連貫，也有賴于隱性的思維結(jié)構(gòu)的一致性和連貫性。雅思閱讀文章句際和段際的邏輯關(guān)系通常使用顯性的邏輯連接詞或其它的過(guò)渡詞語(yǔ)來(lái)表達(dá)，在閱讀答題時(shí)應(yīng)注重這些詞在語(yǔ)篇中的限制和導(dǎo)向功能，以提高語(yǔ)篇的正確解讀效率。雅思閱讀命題還有一個(gè)特點(diǎn)，即題干中出現(xiàn)的邏輯連接詞（或邏輯關(guān)系）往往會(huì)在原文中相關(guān)位置重現(xiàn)，給定位和確定答案提供了重要的線索。這樣的考題就是為了檢驗(yàn)考生能否在閱讀時(shí)利用這些線索，看懂句子之間和各成分之間的關(guān)系，明白作者的思路和觀點(diǎn)。而對(duì)于依靠隱性思維結(jié)構(gòu)的一致和連貫來(lái)體現(xiàn)邏輯關(guān)系的語(yǔ)句，則要求在閱讀答題時(shí)，要注重對(duì)相關(guān)部分上下文語(yǔ)義照應(yīng)的分析和理解。以下就答題中基于顯性連貫和隱性思維結(jié)構(gòu)的邏輯推理各舉一例進(jìn)行說(shuō)明。
例一．劍橋6/Test4/Reading Passage3
Until recently, not much was known about the topic, and little help was available to teachers to deal with bullying. Perhapsas a consequence, schools would often deny the problem. “There is no bullying at this school” has been a common refrain, almost certainly untrue.
Q33. The writer thinks that the declaration “There is no bullying at this school”
A. is no longer true in many schools.
B. was not in fact made by many schools.
C. reflected the school’s lack of concern.
D. reflected a lack of knowledge and resources.
這是一道單選題，也是觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度分析類的題目（題干中有thinks，選項(xiàng)中有reflected）。這一類型的題目對(duì)應(yīng)的原文答案信息區(qū)域往往有觀點(diǎn)態(tài)度提示詞或明顯的邏輯連接詞。本題的選項(xiàng)C/D結(jié)構(gòu)一致（reflected+賓語(yǔ)），是典型的twins選項(xiàng)，應(yīng)重點(diǎn)考慮。以題干中引號(hào)內(nèi)的詞作為定位詞，定位于原文中以上這段文字。原文這三句話使用了顯性的銜接手段，即表示因果的邏輯連接詞“as a consequence”，來(lái)達(dá)到語(yǔ)義的連貫和邏輯性，表明了the declaration “There is no bullying at this school”是結(jié)果，其原因是（或者說(shuō)是反映了/reflect）第一句話中的not much was known/ little help was available，對(duì)應(yīng)選項(xiàng)D的lack of knowledge and resources。雅思閱讀考試在文章邏輯銜接處設(shè)題的情況非常普遍，考生應(yīng)對(duì)此高度重視。
例二．劍橋6/Test4/Reading Passage1
But the sales push rarely stops in the office. The flashy brochures and pamphlets left by the sales reps are often followed up with meals at expensive restaurants, meetings in warm and sunny places, and an inundation of promotional gadgets. Rarely dopatientswatchadoctorwrite with a pen that isn’t emblazoned with adrug’sname, orseeanurseuse a tablet not bearing a pharmaceutical company’s logo. Millions of dollars are spent by pharmaceutical companies on promotional products like coffee mugs, shirts, umbrellas, and golf balls. Money well spent? It’s hard to tell.
Q11. Evidence of drug promotion is clearly visible in the healthcare environment.
這是一道對(duì)錯(cuò)無(wú)判斷題，根據(jù)雅思判斷題的命題特點(diǎn)，題干定位詞應(yīng)為healthcare environment，考點(diǎn)為visible。該題定位有一定的難度，因?yàn)槎ㄎ辉~不僅在原文中作了轉(zhuǎn)述替換，而且其轉(zhuǎn)述的形式并不是我們所熟悉的同義，近義，具體化，結(jié)構(gòu)重組等，而是同一語(yǔ)義場(chǎng)的詞匯同現(xiàn)的對(duì)應(yīng)。根據(jù)判斷題的順序性原則，可以粗略定位在原文中的以上這段文字，在這段文字的第三個(gè)句子（題干對(duì)應(yīng)句）中出現(xiàn)了patients /doctor/ drug’s /nurse這一組同一語(yǔ)義場(chǎng)的詞，對(duì)應(yīng)題干定位詞healthcare environment?？键c(diǎn)visible對(duì)應(yīng)該句的watch/see。但是這個(gè)句子并沒(méi)有明確提到題干中的evidence of drug promotion。這里就需要通過(guò)上下文的語(yǔ)義照應(yīng)進(jìn)行分析和推理。該句和前后的句子之間并沒(méi)有明顯的銜接手段，但是上下文都提到了用于促銷的禮品：promotional gadgets/ promotional products like coffee mugs, shirts, umbrellas, and golf balls，根據(jù)思維結(jié)構(gòu)的一致性和連貫性，題干對(duì)應(yīng)句中的pen emblazoned with a drug’s name/ tablet bearing a pharmaceutical company’s logo都應(yīng)該是指用于促銷的禮品，對(duì)應(yīng)題干的evidence of drug promotion。因此該題判定為YES。在解答這一類題目時(shí)，我們只有把著眼點(diǎn)放在作者對(duì)文章的內(nèi)容組織形式上，放在對(duì)上下文思維結(jié)構(gòu)的邏輯關(guān)系的理解和推理上，才有可能正確答題。
閱讀的本質(zhì)是讀者與作者之間的一種信息交流，閱讀理解中的話語(yǔ)分析的思維模式是基于閱讀理解的本質(zhì)特征，旨在最大限度調(diào)動(dòng)讀者的主觀能動(dòng)作用。雅思閱讀在命題的設(shè)計(jì)上也深刻體現(xiàn)了這一對(duì)文章內(nèi)容結(jié)構(gòu)的破解、分析、推理，主動(dòng)構(gòu)建語(yǔ)篇意義的能力。考生在復(fù)習(xí)備考階段，除了要鞏固基本語(yǔ)法和詞匯的基礎(chǔ)，還應(yīng)當(dāng)在精讀和模擬練習(xí)中有意識(shí)的培養(yǎng)和加強(qiáng)語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)分析的能力，注意把握句際、段際之間的銜接及邏輯思維的連貫。這種能力的加強(qiáng)必將有助于提高實(shí)際考試中定位和分析確定答案的效率。
